Introduction
In the Quran, Allah says to Prophet Muhammad (ṣ):
“We have revealed to you the Book as an explanation of all things, a guide, mercy, and good news for those who ˹fully˺ submit.”[1]
This indicates that all matters relevant to mankind were revealed to the Messenger of Allah in the Qur’an and Sunnah; whether the way it was revealed was specific or general, explicit or implicit, literal or metaphorical. For this reason, Muslims should turn to the divine sources regarding all their affairs, seeking guidance and instruction from them. It is transmitted in the Sunnah that there is a cure for every disease. This in fact urges people to search for and discover appropriate remedies for every disease. The Sunnah is also not short of hygienic instructions, which also carry their own health benefits. Thus, matters related to diseases, plagues, and pandemics have surely been addressed by the revelatory texts and Islamic sciences.[2]
The purpose of this paper is to provide a brief overview of these matters. It will: 1. Discuss important terms and definitions, 2. Mention some epidemics that afflicted Muslims over the course of their history, 3. Go over how Muslims dealt with them, and 4. Examine related hadiths and Islamic rulings.
Terms and Definitions
There are several terms that refer to the umbrella term ‘epidemic’ in Islamic literature that must be defined in order we accurately understand texts that rely upon these definitions, adhere to the methodology of Muslim scholars, and assess the present situation regarding Covid-19 from an Islamic lens. In Arabic, there are two main terms often used to refer to contagious diseases and their spread. They are: 1. al-Wabāʾ, and 2. al-Ṭāʿūn.
- Al-Wabāʾ
The Persian scientist Ibn Sīna, Avicenna, defined al-wabāʾ as a disease that corrupts essential oxygen, without the inhalation of which nothing can live.[3] Some scholars of Islamic jurisprudence) defined al-wabāʾ as a disease that affects an unusually large number of people.[4] Contemporary scholars define al-wabāʾ as a disease that is highly contagious, spreads very rapidly, and whose infection is usually fatal, such as al-ṭāʿūn.[5]
Based on the above definitions, Covid-19 is an epidemic and, according to WHO, a pandemic given its global spread.[6] Further, it falls under the Arabic term al-wabāʾ, as it is known that it is a highly contagious and rapidly spreading disease that can have an exceptionally high death toll.
- Al-Ṭāʿūn
Scholars have differed as to the meaning of al-ṭāʿūn. Some, such as al-Jawhari, Ibn al-Mulaqqin, al-Qurṭubi, al-ʿAyni, and others, said that it is synonymous to al-wabāʾ, i.e., an indefinite deadly disease that spreads rapidly.[7]
Others, such as Ibn ʿAbdilbarr, al-Nawawi, Ibn al-Qayyim, and Ibn Ḥajar, consider al-ṭāʿūn to be a specific epidemic disease.[8] They define it as a disease characterized by painful, dark-colored (blood) growths in the body (bubonic plague).[9] According to these scholars, other epidemic diseases are referred to as al-ṭāʿūn only in a metaphorical way (majāz). According to Ibn Ḥajar, it also differs from a general epidemic (al-wabāʾ) in that it is caused by the jinn (djinn). He backs up his claim by the fact that it, al-ṭāʿūn, breaks out in unpolluted areas with few sick people, thus, there must be an unseen reason for it.[10] He further strengthens his claim with a narration that he and other hadith scholars consider authentic:
Abu Mūsa transmitted that the Prophet (ṣ) said, “My Ummah will perish due to al-ṭaʿn and al-ṭāʿūn.” Thereupon it was asked, “O Messenger of Allāh! We know what al-ṭaʿn (war) is, but what is al-ṭāʿūn?” He replied, “It is wakhz (inward stabs or goading) from your enemies from the jinn; and in both (death by al-ṭaʿn and al-ṭāʿūn) is martyrdom.”[11]
Epidemics in the first century after emigration (hijra)
Several epidemics[12] broke out in the 1st/7th century, such as the following:
1. In the first year of emigration, there was a fever epidemic in Medina that affected some companions. This will be explained in the next section.
2. In year 18 after the emigration, an epidemic broke out in Emmaus (ʿAmawās) of Levant (al-Shām, known as Islamic Syria). Due to this epidemic, many companions of the Prophet died, including Muʿādh b. Jabal, his son, Abu ʿUbaidah b. al-Jarrāḥ, Shuraḥīl b. Ḥasanah, and many others, may Allah be pleased with them all. An estimated 25,000 people died in this epidemic. A well-known narration related to this is that of ʿUmar b. al-Khaṭṭāb. When he, ʿUmar, headed towards Levant and arrived upon the border of present-day Jordan (Sargh/Saragh), he met Abu ʿUbaidah b. al-Jarrāḥ and some of his high-ranking soldiers. They reported to him that a plague broke out in the Levant. Upon hearing that, he became hesitant between proceeding further and entering the Levant or turning back. So, he consulted various companions until he got to some of the elder ones among the Quraish who had emigrated in the year of the Conquest to Mecca (ʿĀm Al-Fatḥ). They unanimously proposed to turn back and not enter the Levant, to which ʿUmar agreed. Abu ʿUbaidah b. al-Jarrāḥ rejected ʿUmar’s decision and questioned, “Are you fleeing from what Allah had ordained (Qadar)?” ʿUmar replied, “Would that someone else had said such a thing, O ʿUbaidah (i.e., I did not expect this statement from you)! Yes, we flee from what Allah had ordained to what Allah has ordained…” At that time the Prophet’s Companion ʿAbdurraḥmān b. ʿAwf, who had been absent because of some job, came and said, “Verily, I possess some knowledge about this. I heard the Messenger of Allah (ṣ) say, ‘If you hear about it (al-ṭāʿūn) in a land, do not go to it, but if it breaks out in the land that you are residing in, do not flee from it (in fear).’” (Upon hearing that), ʿUmar thanked Allah and turned back.[13] Due to this plague, Abu ʿUbaidah b. al-Jarrāḥ died in 18 H.[14] According to Ibn Ḥajar, this al-ṭāʿūn refers to the epidemic prophesized in the hadith of ʿAwf b. Mālik. He said, “I went to the Prophet (ṣ) during the Battle of Tabūk while he was sitting in a leather tent. He said: ‘Count six signs (that indicate the approach) of the Hour: my death, then the conquest of Jerusalem, then a plague (mawtān, a mortal disease or murrain) that will afflict you (and kill you in great numbers) as the plague that afflicts sheep, (…).”[15]
3. The sweeping plague (al-Ṭāʿūn al-Jārif) of Basra during the reign of ʿAbdullāh b. al-Zubair in 65 H.[16] It was called ‘sweeping’ (al-Jārif) because it killed an estimated 210,000 people within three days.[17] It is transmitted that 70 or 80 descendants of Anas b. Mālik, a companion of the Prophet, died due to this epidemic.[18] Also, 40 descendants of ʿAbdurraḥmān b. Abi Bakrah, 30 of ʿUbaidullāh b. ʿUmair, and seven of Ṣadaqah b. ʿĀmir died all in one day. When Ṣadaqah went to join them, he unexpectedly saw all of them covered in death robes. He said, “O Allah, I submit to your ordinance, and I am Muslim.”[19] It is transmitted that as many as 50 people died in a single household in just merely a day. Abu al-Nufaid reported, “We went through the different tribes to bury the deceased. But when there were too many, we could no longer bury them. Instead, we closed the houses where the bodies lied.”[20]
4. In 87 H. a plague, plague of the young women (Ṭāʿūn al-Fatayāt), broke out. It is called as such because it spread predominately amongst the virgins and girls in Basra, Kufa, and the Levant. It is also referred to as the ‘Plague of the Great’ because many high-ranking people also died due to it. According to some accounts, the famous caliph ʿAbdulmalik b. al-Marwān died during this plague.
The greatest pandemic in human history is probably the pandemic of Europe. It is referred to as “the Black Death.”[21] It represents one of the most devastating pandemics in world history. An estimated 25 million people died in Europe between 1346 and 1353 – one-third of the population at the time. Not only did this plague spread in Europe, but also in Arab countries, such as Egypt and the Levant. It is also mentioned by Ibn Ḥajar.[22]
Can epidemics occur in the Prophet’s city of Medina?
Keeping in mind the differentiation between al-ṭāʿūn and al-wabāʾ, hadiths regarding them should be understood accordingly. Likewise does Ibn Ḥajar understand the following authentically transmitted hadith:
“There are angels at the mountain passes of Medina (so that) neither al-ṭāʿūn nor al-Dajjāl (anti-christ) can enter it.”[23]
This Hadith is explicit in that only al-ṭāʿūn cannot occur in Medina, signifying that any other disease may very well spread therein. In fact, it is narrated from the Prophet’s (ṣ) wife ʿĀʾishah that when the Prophet emigrated to Medina, a kind of fever plague had broken out there; severely affecting some companions, namely Abu Bakr and Bilāl, may Allah be pleased with them. Out of anger, Bilāl (r) made a supplication against their enemies in Mecca, who were the sole reason for their expulsion from it. Upon hearing, the Prophet (ṣ) supplicated, “O Allah! Make us love Medina as You made us love Mecca, or more, and transfer the fever that is in it, to Al-Juhfa.[24] O Allah! Bless our Mudd and our Sa’ (kinds of measures).”[25]
Following the above hadith, ʿĀʾishah (r) explained that before the hijrah, Medina was a place where epidemics often broke out due to water pollution. Likewise, it has been transmitted that many people died due to an epidemic that broke out in Medina during the reign of ʿUmar (r).[26]
Also, interestingly enough, in one narration of the Hadith in al-Bukhāri, the word “In Shāʾ Allāh” (if Allah wills) is added at the ending, “[…] neither al-ṭāʿūn nor al-Dajjāl can enter it, if Allah wills.” [27] This addition has been interpreted differently. The Prophet (ṣ) mentioned this either to invoke Allah’s blessings or to clarify that if Allah willed, He could also have al-ṭāʿūn spread in Medina. Albeit Ibn Ḥajar preferred the first interpretation.[28]
Furthermore, Fulaiḥ b. Sulaimān transmits this hadith and additionally mentions that it also cannot enter the city of Mecca.[29] However, he is deemed a weak narrator, as Ibn Maʿīn, Abu Ḥātim, and others assessed that he is not reliable.[30] Ibn Ḥajar said that he was credible but often erred. Thus, this addition is considered an error on his part, since he is the only one with who transmitted it with this addition.
Thus, it can be concluded that only in Medina a certain type of epidemic (al-ṭāʿūn) cannot break out, whereas this was not the case with other epidemics in the past and those that might break out in the future. From this it can be concluded that this narration does not contradict the outbreak of the coronavirus in Medina.
Some benefits from the foregoing:
- Due to the difference between al-wabāʾ (any epidemic) and al-ṭāʿūn (specific epidemic), we can conclude that hadiths that speak about al-ṭāʿūn are specific in nature and should not be applied to all epidemics. Exceptions to this are seen in some aspects of the Islamic law that can be derived by analogy; more on this later.
- The caliph ʿUmar asked various companions for advice, who had differing opinions. He then discussed this problem with the most knowledgeable of Quraish and took their advice, which was to turn away and not enter the Levant. Thus, we can deduce that in major matters that affect many people, only experts in the respective field should be consulted and their opinions be given preference. This leads us to where we should get information regarding Covid-19. Whether looking at it from a medical or a theological point of view, we should only follow and trust recognized personalities, and disregard a lot of the misinformation being spread, especially if your only source is social media.
- If someone is outside a place where an epidemic has broken out, he should not enter it. Note, precautionary measures do not disallow or disaffirm complete reliance upon Allah (al-tawakkul).
- The companions had different opinions about whether they should enter the place afflicted by the epidemic or not. Therefore, differences of opinion should not always be blamed. If experts have different opinions, it is the responsibility of the state and the leaders to determine the measures that must be taken, which then must be observed by the citizens. In the narration mentioned earlier, ʿUmar listened to the various opinions and then, as caliph, determined how they should act.
- It can happen that only a few know an Islamic legal ruling or source, while most have no knowledge of it; as was the case with ʿAbdurraḥmān b. ʿAwf. He knew the transmitted hadith, while most others did not.
Epidemics in the light of Islamic religious teachings
Scholars have indeed addressed how epidemics should be viewed in Islamic religious doctrine. It should be stated that no suffering exists except that it was ordained by Allah. In this regard, the Quran and Sunnah are clear in that there is a wisdom behind suffering and that the believer should strive and struggle to tackle suffering. Additionally, it is well known that the suffering of a Muslim is generally understood as either an atonement for his sins or a test from Allah. Both are for the Muslim to attain a higher place in the hereafter. With regards to al-ṭāʿūn, the Messenger of Allah (ṣ) said the following:
“It is a means of punishment with which some nations were punished and some of it has remained, and it appears now and then…”[31]
In another version, it additionally states:
“…but He (Allah) made it a mercy for the believers. No slave (of God among the believers, i.e., no Muslim) remains patient in a land in which plague has broken out and considers that nothing will befall him except what Allah has ordained for him, but that he will have a reward similar to that of a martyr.”[32]
According to this hadith, a Muslim who chooses to remain in a place where al-ṭāʿūn has broken out with the conviction that nothing can befall him except by what Allah has ordained and is patient while doing so, will get the reward of a martyr. The hadith does not state death from al-ṭāʿūn as a condition to attain the reward, which is why some scholars held that the reward is not only confined to those who died. It should be noted that according to the scholars who define al-ṭāʿūn as a specific disease, this reward is confined to al-ṭāʿūn only and not to other epidemics. To infer by analogy (Qiyās) that being patient during other epidemics yields the same reward, as they all our infectious mortal diseases, would be unreasonable, since there is no known reason as to why one attains this reward if patient through al-ṭāʿūn. Thus, inferring this due to similarities would be invalid, because we are unaware why that reward is given in relation to al-ṭāʿūn, so how can we be sure of whether that unknown reason subsists in other epidemics or not?[33] Nevertheless, Allah’s mercy is so great that we hope those that were affected by other epidemics too await a tremendous reward.
Even though there is a divine wisdom behind all suffering, the Sunnah of the Prophet (ṣ) teaches us to take both religious and worldly precautions and prohibits deliberate suffering. This is because man is always seesawing between what has been predestined by Allah. Thus, nothing afflicts or passes him except that Allah has allowed it to. Further, as is well known amongst the Muslims that the Sunnah urges to make daily supplications each morning and evening.[34] The purpose of these supplications is, among other things, to ask Allah for protection in both this world and the hereafter. The Prophet (ṣ) said in a narration:
“Whoever says ‘Aʿūdhu bi kalimātil-lāhit-tāmmāti min sharri mā khalaq’ three times every morning and evening, nothing will harm him.”[35]
According to Ibn Ḥajar, however, these supplications benefit only the one who has a pure and believing heart, is righteous, and constantly asks Allah for forgiveness.[36] Thus, every Muslim should recite this supplication every morning during the spread of Covid-19; thereby asking Allah for protection. Moreover, the Muslim should also avoid places that may put himself at risk of being infected, so that he not deliberately put himself in harm’s way. The following hadith can be cited as evidence of this:
“Flee from a leper as you flee from a lion.”[37]
Thus, these precautions do not contradict al-tawakkul (complete reliance upon Allah) that nothing will befall him without Allah’s will and ordinance.
Does the Sunnah deny contagion?
There are authentic reports of the Prophet (ṣ) that seem to deny contagion, such as:
“There is no ʿadwa (contagious disease), no ṭiyarah (bad omen from birds), no hāmah (owl/night-bird of the dead), and no ṣafar (serpent in a hungry belly); but flee from the leper (one who has tubercular leprosy) as you flee from a lion.”[38]
Moreover, it is authentically transmitted that the Prophet (ṣ) said:
“The cattle suffering from a disease should not be mixed up with healthy cattle.”[39]
According to the hadith scholars this is only an apparent contradiction and not an actual contradiction because they agree that narrations cannot contradict each other due to their origin of being from a divine source. In tackling this, Ibn Ḥajar states different scholarly interpretations after noting that some scholars resorted to viewing the abrogation (naskh) or preponderance (tarjīḥ) of one set of reports over the others. He opined that neither are acceptable due to the possibility of reconciling between them (jamʿ).[40]
The main approaches to reconcile between them include the following:[41]
- The absolute denial of contagions. Thus, the advice to flee from the leper is in the interest of the leper and not the healthy person, because the leper may feel worse upon seeing the healthy person.
- The outright denial of contagions and command to flee from them are for two different categories of people. The first is for those who have great trust in Allah and know that nothing can affect them except with Allah’s permission. They need not to be bothered by contagions, as those that are content with any amount of provision need not be bothered by the amount they earn. The latter is for those of weak faith; they are commanded to flee. This is because, in case of infection, they would forget the fact that it is only by Allah’s permission they can be harmed and infected and so attribute the infection to an independent and natural cause.
- Lepers are an exception to the negation of contagions. This approach was preferred by al-Bāqillānī.
- Leprosy is not a conventional contagion because its infection requires prolonged physical contact and the possibility of smelling the leper’s odor. On the contrary, plagues do not require physical contact to be infected. However, to remove the possibility of assuming that one is safe from a plague solely due to fleeing from a land and thereby disregarding the predestination of Allah, the Prophet (ṣ) clearly states that the is no contagion until Allah wills it. This approach was preferred by Ibn Qutaybah.
- By denial or negation of contagions, it is meant that they cannot infect people independently, rather it depends solely on what Allah has ordained and willed. It is often the case that some who have contact with a sick person become infected, while others do not.
- The outright denial of contagions, i.e., there is no such thing as a contagion. Thus, the command to flee from a leper is not because one might get infected by keeping close to a sick person, but rather he may get infected at any time or place if Allah wills so.
- Ibn Khuzaimah and al-Ṭaḥāwi are of the opinion that the command to flee from the leper is to be understood in such a way that if a healthy person visits a sick person, and then by Allah’s will gets sick, does not say, “If I had not gone near the sick person, I would have been spared.” For if Allah ordains for one to get sick, he will get become sick regardless of any other factor.
- Other scholars say that the command to flee is not binding, that is, one is not obligated to flee because there is no contagion except by Allah’s permission.
What all these approaches have in common is the fact that there is no contagion without Allah’s ordinance and will. This is exactly the point the Prophet (ṣ) intended to clarify to his companions, along with the contagious nature of leprosy and thus ordered to flee from it. He also simultaneously denied all forms of evil omen, which were very common in the pre-Islamic period (jāhiliyyah). With what we know today, an absolute denial of contagions is highly questionable. For example, it has been scientifically proven that diseases such as coronaviruses are contagious and that viruses are transmissible. However, their spread is solely confined to the will of Allah. Therefore, a Muslim who is afflicted with such a virus should know with firm conviction that it was due solely to the will and permission of Allah. Thus, such an interpretation would be more liable according to our current knowledge and at the same time would be an adequate way to reconcile between the apparent contradiction found between the hadiths, and Allah knows best.
Epidemics as a Sign of the Last Day
The Prophet’s companion ʿAwf b. Mālik reported:
“I went to the Prophet (ṣ) during the Battle of Tabuk while he was sitting in a leather tent. He said, ‘Count six signs that indicate the approach of the Hour: My death, the conquest of Jerusalem, a deadly plague that will afflict you (and lead to death of many of you) as the plague that afflicts sheep, the increase of wealth to such an extent that even if a person is given 100 dinars, he will still not be satisfied; then an affliction from which no Arab house will escape, and then a truce between you and the Bani al-ʾAṣfar (Byzantines) who will betray you and attack you under eighty flags. Under each flag there will be 12,000 men/soldiers.’ ”[42]
In this hadith, the prophet (ṣ) enumerated some signs of the Last Day, including a deadly plague that will break out. Ibn Ḥajar believes that this plague refers to the al-ṭāʿūn of Emmaus in the Levant.[43]
Why epidemics can break out
It is reported that ʿAbdullāh b. ʿUmar said:
“The Messenger of Allāh (ṣ) turned to us and said, ‘O you emigrants (Muhājirūn), there are five things with which you will be tested, and I seek refuge with Allah lest you live to see them: Immorality never appears among a people to such an extent that they commit it openly, but plagues and diseases that were never known among the predecessors will spread among them. They do not cheat in weights and measures, but they will be stricken with famine, severe calamity, and the oppression of their rulers. They do not withhold the Zakāh of their wealth, but rain will be withheld from the sky, and were it not for the animals, no rain would fall on them. They do not break their covenant with Allah and His Messenger, but Allah will enable their enemies to overpower them and take some of what is in their hands. Unless their leaders rule according to the Book of Allah and seek all good from that which Allah has revealed, Allah will cause them to fight one another.’” [44]
It is also interesting to note what the well-known scholar and sociologist Ibn Khaldūn wrote:
“As for the large death toll, this is due either to the many famines –as mentioned– or to the many temptations (from civil wars) due to lack of state power or from epidemics…”[45]
Some Islamic legal regulations concerning epidemics
Geographical quarantine from an Islamic perspective
There are differences of opinion among scholars regarding the Islamic legal ruling concerning leaving or entering a place where al-ṭāʿūn has broken out. The basis for this is the following hadith:
“…So if you hear of its (al-ṭāʿūn) spread in a land, do not approach it, and if it appears in a land where you are present, then do not leave that land in order to escape it.”[46]
The word “Arḍ” (translated as land) here suggests the immediate location where the epidemic has broken out, not the entire country/land. Most scholars are of the opinion that it is forbidden to leave that land in order to save oneself from the plague; taken from the evident (ẓāhir) meaning of the hadith.[47] In some hadiths, fleeing from al-ṭāʿūn out of fear from it is equated with desertion from war, which is considered a great sin (kabīrah).[48] It is said that Imām Malik viewed the permissibility of fleeing from a place infested with al-ṭāʿūn. He saw the prohibition not for forbiddance, but rather for educational and pedagogical reasons (Irshād wa Taʾdīb). According to him, such prohibitions are actually recommendations and to not abide by them is merely frowned upon.[49] As for leaving that land for medical treatment, acquiring knowledge, or the like, then scholars of fiqh agree that it is permissible.[50]
Since only one specific epidemic disease (al-ṭāʿūn) is mentioned in this hadith, the question arises whether it is forbidden to flee from other epidemics as well. It must be remembered, as previously mentioned, that the various excellences of al-ṭāʿūn cannot be inferred upon by analogy for other epidemic diseases, so similarly, deriving any ruling for other epidemics by analogy of al-ṭāʿūn would be invalid. For example, this specific epidemic (al-ṭāʿūn) in the hadith was described as a mercy for the believers and those who perished from it were assigned the reward of a martyr, so fleeing from it would actually be counterintuitive.
According to al-Suyūṭi, there is a consensus on the permissibility of fleeing, for whatever reason, from a place that has been afflicted by an epidemic disease other than al-ṭāʿūn.[51] There are scholars who view the legitimacy of quarantine from such hadiths, since the reason (ʿillah) is provided, which is the danger of the contagion, thus if quarantine can reduce some danger, there would be nothing wrong with it. However, as far as governments are concerned, whether Islamic or non-Islamic, the regulations put in place are also binding upon Muslims, regardless the nature of the disease, be it a coronavirus or otherwise.
Regulations regarding prayer
Special prayer to lift the epidemics
It is transmitted that, during the solar eclipse, the Prophet (ṣ) performed a special prayer[52] with his companions.[53] From that, one might ask, is it permissible to dedicate a special prayer for other catastrophes or crises? According to the Hanafi madhhab, it is permissible to do so for any similar event, such as during immense fear, storms, earthquakes, and heavy rain.[54] They refer to the action of Ibn ʿAbbās, as he prayed special prayers during the time Basra was hit with earthquakes.[55] The Hanbali school of thought too look to the same evidence, yet hold that it is not lawful except during a solar eclipse or against continuous earthquakes, as no other reason, other than the two previous ones, has been transmitted to us.[56] The Shafiites, however, hold that prayers should only be offered communally in the case of a solar eclipse, while it should be offered at homes for other similar crises.[57] They too rely on the same evidence as the prior two. The Malikites differ, as they hold that no special prayer should be performed, be it for the solar eclipse or otherwise. Although, they lack any viable evidence for this. Despite that, it has been transmitted by some Malikites that it is desirable to pray for epidemics. They count it as prayer associated with certain occasions (Ṣalāt Dhāt al-Sabab).[58]
Qunūt Dua in prayer for the lifting of epidemics
Most scholars (Hanafites, Malikites and Shafiites) hold that it is desirable to make the qunūt supplication[59] in prayer for crises such as epidemics.[60] For this they allude to the narration in which the Prophet (ṣ), upon arrival to Medina, supplicated to rid of the epidemic afflicting them and put it in al-Juḥfah.[61] Furthermore, epidemics are undoubtedly amongst the greatest of crises, so it would not be farfetched to allow the qunūt supplication during such periods. The Hanbalites, on the other hand, do not allow the qunūt supplication for them. They cite that the caliph ʿUmar did not do the qunūt supplication when al-ṭāʿūn broke out amongst them.[62] However, this argument is feeble because the mere fact that something was not transmitted does not mean that it did not take place. So, based on this, it would be permissible to do the qunūt supplication during the Corona pandemic.
Prayers of Supplication
During every crisis, it is important that every Muslim independently offer supplications. Especially at the times that supplications are not rejected, such as between the adhān and iqāmah.[63]
However, it is not permissible to offer a special communal prayer for the lifting of an epidemic. Ibn Ḥajar deemed this as an innovation and detailed the tragic consequences endured by such an action. For example, when a plague struck the city of Damascus in 749 H., most of the seniors of the city decided to perform a special communal prayer outdoors. Thereafter, the plague worsened and the death toll multiplied. In 833 H. Cairo, the daily death toll of a plague that broke out was less than 40. Then, after a few weeks of the people deciding to perform a communal prayer in the desert outside the city, it exponentially increased; killing thousands daily.[64]
Regulations regarding burials of bodies that died due to epidemics
Washing the Deceased (ghusl al-mayyit)
Maliki scholars mention that if the number of deceased is too high and it becomes difficult to find people who can wash them, it is permissible to bury them without washing them.[65]
Burying Multiple Bodies in One Grave
There is a consensus among scholars that each corpse must be buried separately in a different grave except in the state of absolute necessity (ḍarūrah).[66] Epidemics or anything that causes an excessive number of deaths constitute as absolute necessity. Additionally, a lack of space in a cemetery is also considered a hardship.[67] This is backed up by the fact that the Prophet (ṣ), out of dire necessity after the Battle of Uḥud, ordered his companions to place in each grave two or three martyrs.[68] Thus, the deceased may also be buried in this way due to the coronavirus if there is a need.
Regulations regarding Umrah and Hajj
One who is in the state of iḥrām (muḥrim)[69] is obliged to observe certain regulations with regards to his or her clothing. It is not permissible for either to wear gloves. Only when there is a necessity one can wear them, such as during epidemics to protect oneself from contagions. Even so, if one were to wear them, they would be obliged to slaughter a sacrificial animal (fidyah al-ʾadhā).[70] Similarly, masks for women are not allowed, as they are not allowed to wear face coverings while in the state of iḥrām and if they do so, they need to slaughter a sacrificial animal.
Regulations regarding inheritance
Generally, a healthy person can distribute his wealth as he wishes. Whereas someone on his deathbed is more limited, as he may not gift, donate, or give away more than one-third of his wealth in his will.[71] Several hadiths are listed regarding this matter as well as there being a consensus on it. Among the many wisdoms of this ruling is that when someone is on his deathbed, giving away his wealth could possibly curtail the rights of those who will inherit from him, thus limiting his freedom in this regard.
Bearing that in mind, would it be permissible to freely distribute one’s wealth during an epidemic, as death can upon him at any time? Some fiqh scholars are of the opinion that one may only give away one-third of his wealth during an epidemic, regardless of his health.[72] Some propose that experts first evaluate the epidemic. If the probability of dying is high, the 1/3 rule is applied, otherwise it is not.[73]
As for inheritance when several family members die.
One of the conditions of inheritance is that the deceased’s heir is alive. It becomes problematic when they all die at once without any clue as to who died first. The scholars mention several solutions for the following scenarios:
- If it is known who died first, then the one who died afterwards inherits the from the first. There is a scholarly consensus regarding this.[74]
- If it is known that both died at the same time, there is no inheritance between them. This means that the living family members will inherit from both directly.[75]
- If it is not known who died first, then there are is a difference of opinion. Imam Abu Hanifa, Malik, and al-Shāfiʿi are of the opinion that they do not inherit from each other, and that the inheritance is divided among the respective family members.[76] This, due to the uncertainty of who died first. On the other hand, Imām Aḥmad and some companions believed that they do in fact inherit from each other. However, only the wealth that the deceased had during their lifetime (al-talīd) is inherited by the other and the wealth that each must inherit from the other is dropped (al-ṭarīf), as this would cause a neverending inheritcan cycle.[77]
“Whatever affliction befalls you is because of what your own hands have committed. And He pardons much.”[78]
[1] Surah 16, Verse 89. All translations of Quranic verses are taken from The Clear Quran, by Mustafa Khattab.
[2] In the hadith collections, we find different chapters about diseases and explicit mention of some epidemics. The first written book known to us is by Ibn Abi al-Dunya (d. 281 H.) Kitāb al-Ṭawāʿīn, he was followed by Taj al-Dīn al-Subki (d. 771 H.) with Juzʾ fi al-Ṭāʿūn, and after that, excluding the present scientific treatises, more than fifteen books were written on epidemics from the Islamic point of view. Cf. Aḥmad al-Kātib: Muqaddimah Taḥqīq Badhl al-Māʿūn, pp. 32 ff.
[3] Cf. Ibn Ḥajar, Fatḥ al-Bāri, vol. 10, p. 178.
[4] Ibid.
[5] Muʿjam al-Lughah al-ʿArabiyyah al-Muʿāṣarah, vol. 3, p. 2392.
[6] http://www.euro.who.int/de/health-topics/health-emergencies/coronavirus-covid-19/news/news/2020/3/who-announces-covid-19-outbreak-a-pandemic (06.04.2020).
[7] Cf. al-Jawhari, al-Ṣiḥāḥ, vol. 6, p. 2158; Ibn al-Mulaqqin, al-Tawḍīḥ, vol. 6, p. 434; al-Qurṭubi, al-Mufhim, vol. 3, p. 757; al-ʿAyni, ʿUmdah al-Qāriʾ, vol. 5, p. 171.
[8] Cf. Ibn Ḥajar, Badhl al-Māʿūn fi Faḍl al-Ṭāʿūn, p. 104.
[9] Cf. al-Nawawi, al-Minhāj, vol. 1, p. 105 and Ibn Ḥajar, Fatḥ al-Bāri, vol. 10, p. 180.
[10] Cf. Fatḥ al-Bāri, vol. 10, p. 181.
[11] Cf. Ibn Ḥajar: Badhl al-Māʿūn, p. 107. Here the various ways of transmission are enumerated and gone through in detail by Ibn Ḥajar.
[12] Cf. Ibn Ḥajar: Badhl al-Māʿūn, p. 361, listing many epidemics that occurred in Islamic history at the location indicated.
[13] This history, abbreviated here, is transmitted in complete form in Ṣaḥīḥ al-Bukhāri no. 5729 and Ṣaḥīḥ Muslim no. 2219.
[14] Ibn Ḥajar, al-Fatḥ, vol. 7, p. 93.
[15] Al-Bukhāri no. 3176.
[16] Cf. Ibn Jarīr, Tārīkh al-Ṭabari vol. 5, p. 612. According to Ibn Kathīr and al-Dhahabi, it was in 69 H. Cf. Ibn Kathīr, al-Bidāyah wa al-Nihāyah, vol. 8, p. 288.
[17] Ibn al-Jawzi, al-Muntaẓam fi Tārīkh al-Mulūk wa al-ʾUmam, vol. 6, p. 25.
[18] Ibn Taghribirdi, al-Nujūm al-Zāhira, vol. 1, p. 224.
[19] Taqiyyuddin al-Miqrīzi, Imtaʿ al-ʾAsmāʿ, vol. 12, p. 261.
[20] Ibid. vol. 6, p. 26.
[21] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Death
[22] Ibn Ḥajar, Badhl al-Māʿūn, p. 224.
[23] al-Bukhāri no. 1880, Muslim no. 1379.
[24] A scarcely inhabited area at the time, about 120 km north of Jeddah.
[25] al-Bukhāri no. 1988.
[26] al-Bukhāri no. 2643. Cf. also: Ibn Ḥajar, Badhl al-Māʿūn, p. 104.
[27] al-Bukhāri no. 7134.
[28] Cf. al-Fatḥ, vol. 10, p. 190 and vol. 13, p. 105.
[29] Ibid. vol. 3, p. 191.
[30] al-Mizzi, Tahdhīb al-Kamāl, vol. 23, p. 319.
[31] al-Bukhāri no. 6974.
[32] al-Bukhāri no. 5734.
[33] Creedal beliefs must be taken directly from the Qur’an and the Sunnah without inference or juristic reasoning (Qiyās), since they are hidden matters (Umūr al-Ghaib) and they have no known reason or cause (ʿillah).
[34] These are referred to as “Adhkār Al-Ṣabāh wa Al-Masāʾ.”
[35] al-Bukhāri, al-ʾAdab al-Mufrad, no. 660.
[36] Ibn Ḥajar, Badhl al-Māʿūn, p. 171.
[37] al-Bukhāri no. 5380.
[38] al-Bukhāri no. 5707.
[39] al-Bukhāri no. 5774.
[40] As is known, that if two contradictory reports are found, then the scholar first looks to reconcile between them (jamʿ). If that is not possible, he looks to see if one of them is abrogated (naskh). If that is not possible, he resorts to making a preponderance between the two (tarjīḥ). If all else fails, he withholds from making a judgement until further notice (tawaqquf).
[41] Cf. for the detailed enumeration Ibn Ḥajar, al-Fatḥ, vol. 10, pp. 158-163.
[42] al-Bukhāri no. 3176.
[43] Ibn Ḥajar, al-Fatḥ, vol. 6, p. 278.
[44] Ibn Mājah, al-Sunan no. 4019.
[45] Ibn Khaldūn, al-Tārīkh, vol. 1, p. 238.
[46] al-Bukhāri no. 3286.
[47] Cf. al-Taḥṭāwi, al-Ḥāshya, vol. 1, p. 547; al-Nawawi, al-Majmūʿ, vol. 5, p. 322. The well-known Andalusian scholar Ibn ʿAbdilbarr and al-Subki confirm this opinion. Cf. Ibn Ḥajar, Badhl al-Māʿūn, p. 269.
[48] Cf. Aḥmad, al-Musnad no. 24527.
[49] Cf. Ibn ʿAbdilbar, al-Tamhīd, vol. 21, p. 183; al-Qarāfi, al-Dhakhīra, vol. 13, p. 325.
[50] al-Qarāfi, al-Dhakhīra, vol. 13, p. 325; al-Nawawi, al-Minhāj, vol. 14, p. 207; Ibn Ḥajar, al-Fatḥ, vol. 6. p. 520.
[51] Ibn Ḥajar al-Haitami, al-Fatāwa al-Kubra, vol. 4, p. 11.
[52] This prayer is referred to as Ṣalah Al-Kusuf.
[53] al-Bukhāri no. 1044 and Muslim no. 901.
[54] Cf. al-Kāsāni, Badāʿi al-Ṣanāʿi, vol. 1, p. 282.
[55] Cf. Ibn Abi Shaybah, al-Muṣannaf, vol. 2, p. 472.
[56] Cf. al-Mardāwi, al-Inṣāf 5/405.
[57] Cf. al-Nawawi, al-Majmūʿ, vol. 5, p. 44.
[58] Cf. al-Dawsaqi, al-Ḥāshyah, vol. 1, p. 308.
[59] Referred to as “Duʿā Qunūt“ in Arabic. It is predominately done in the Witr prayer (the final prayer with an odd unit of Rakahs) either before or after Rukūʿ (the bowing position).
[60] Cf. Ibn ʿĀbidīn, Radd al-Muḥtār, vol. 2, p.11; al-Dasoqi, al-Ḥāshiyah, vol. 1, p. 308; Ibn Ḥajar al-Haitami, Tuḥfah al-Muḥtāj, vol. 2, p. 68.
[61] Cf. al-Bukhāri no. 5677 and Muslim no. 1376.
[62] Cf. Ibn al-Mufliḥ, al-Furūʿ vol. 2, p. 367.
[63] Adhān is the call to prayer, while Iqamāh is the call to start the prayer.
[64] Ibn Ḥajar, Badhl al-māʿūn, p. 329.
[65] Cf. al-Qarāfi, al-Dhakhīra, vol. 2, p. 450.
[66] Cf. Ibn Qudāmah, al-Mughni, vol. 2, p. 420.
[67] Cf. al-Zuhaili, al-Fiqh al-Islām wa Adillatuh, vol. 2, p. 1560.
[68] Cf. Abu Dāwūd no. 3215 and others.
[69] The state that you get into when going to perform Umrah and Hajj in which there are some dress code restrictions.
[70] Ibn Qudāmah, al-Mughni, vol. 5, p. 120.
[71] Ibn al-Mundhir, al-Ijmāʿ p. 77; Ibn Qudāmah, al-Mughni vol. 8, p. 473.
[72] Cf. Ibn Ḥajar al-Haitami, al-Fatāwa al-kubra, vol. 4, p. 14.
[73] Ibn Qudāmah, al-Mughni, vol. 6, p. 109.
[74] Ibn Ḥazm, Marātib al-ijmāʿ p. 179.
[75] Ibn Qudāmah, al-Mughni, vol. 6, p. 381.
[76] Cf. al-Sarakhsi, al-Mabṣūṭ, vol. 30, p. 28; al-Qāḍi ʿAbdulwahhāb, al-Talqīn, vol. 2, p. 220; al-Māwardi: al-Ḥāwi al-kabīr, vol. 8, p. 87.
[77] Cf. Ibn Qudāmah, al-Mughni, vol. 6, p. 378.
[78] Surah 42, verse 30.
